I'm going to go on now, having talked a whole lot about these metals and the DESIGN SCIENCE requirements of understanding some big patterns and to tell you a little more about it, that immediately at the end of W.W.I, and the big aircraft companies didn't know as I said to you the other day, that they were going to have jets to produce. And everyone was looking around for things that they could do, and I told you about a meeting with the people who made the General Panel, but I also the house that we developed in Beech Aircraft became very interesting to a number of the bigger aircraft companies, and young Donald Douglas, who was the producer of the famous DC-3 and other DC's before they amalgamated with MacDonald Aircraft. I had a wonderful talk with Donald Douglas at the end of W.W.I, and they were interested in the possibility that Douglas Aircraft might produce the Wichita House which I am going to show you in a few minutes. Which had been produced at Beech Aircraft.

Donald Douglas, then, told me, in relation to the things I've said to you about all those metals that were in great waste in the aircraft industries enormous amounts of materials that had to be either sent back, or some how or other, sold. In the aircraft industry, I want you to understand there are really two very different kinds of engineers. There are design engineers, and design engineers then do design the airplane to start off with, and the design engineers do structural analysis and they know just exactly the right what strength that part has to have, all that is beautifully done. When the design engineering was over at the time of W.W.II, then they were going to have to get into production, and they had what was called then Production Engineering, and Production Engineering then began to look over the parts that had been designed by the design engineers and figure out how you were going to make those parts, and they found out time and again that the designer of the part really had no knowledge at all of tools, didn't really know this he only knew that the center of that metal was stronger than the edges, and things like that he followed those kinds of rules. But the production engineer was deeply familiar with all the fundamentals of production, how many kinds of tools are there? And he could see, because the production engineers are always graduated from being design engineers, so they understand how the design is made by the design engineer, alright, but they really realize then the production of it that part could be changed and you could still do exactly what it had been designed to do, but it can be designed a little differently to do the same function, and then it could be easy to manufacture with this kind of tool, that kind of tool.

And so, Donald Douglas said, "I'm never going to have any design engineers ever again, who are not already production engineers. Because I think it is absolutely incredibly stupid to have to do what we did during the War and having all those waste materials " he said.

As a consequence on that attitude on the part of great manufacturers like Donald Douglas, a very big change has really occurred in the aerospace industry incredible one, and the change that has come about there is the following. We learned so very much more about alloys since that time. Alloys were being discovered accidentally in the world of metallurgy when I was at Phelps Dodge. The scientists were not looking for new alloys, but they gradually began to learn so much more about the metallurgy itself, really learning your 18 and 8 is a very important kind of number showing up in the stainless steel. 18 and 8 these are proportions of the chromium and the nickel being added to the steel, and these numbers you can't just make it a little chromium, make it 19 and 8 it doesn't work. These numbers have something to do with the kind of geometry I have been showing you. They began to realize this more and more, that there were only certain phases in which things would associate in the right way so that instead of them looking for, just letting it happen accidentally, they began to really learn where the periodicity occur, what kind of numbers would be showing up and began to be able to actually design some alloys. This came in with the space technology and the re-entry problems. They suddenly had to have materials that would do what no materials they knew of could ever do. The kind of heats you were going to come to there was problem after problem, but there was absolutely nothing known that could get to those limits.

So, then, they began to literally design, by going back to the chemistries and so forth, seeing what might possibly in some of these curves get there, and they began sort of literally designing the right metals getting the right numbers.

Well, this was a very great advance it its own right. So then they began to realize, as you got into these rarer and rarer metals, there was no point in trying to make wire bar, and trying to make angle irons and so forth nobody is ever going to use angle irons out of titanium or whatever it may be, we'll just say. So that they began, then, to do something fascinating. They began developing a set of tools where they would make the end product instantly with the tool. They would make just enough of that alloy, and in it's molten state whatever it was it would go into the end shape instantly. Now this was very not being cut out of any kind of way this is quite a transition from the exploitation of the mine you had to have something to exploit so you could get out some shapes that people are going to buy, to really, then, going after doing the right thing for the right reason. Because you get in that space technology, the aerospace technology, and as far as the aircraft engineer goes, that designs that airplane, he's not interested in making money whatsoever. All he wants is that that airplane is absolutely safe, can fly and do the most with the least. It is a self-policing kind of an activity.

And so, I found that this new one of making the exact learning so much about production, learning so much about behaviors of atoms, really learning then how we could make tools so you could make the end product in, approximately, just one having no waste whatsoever. You might have to machine it some more from there on, as you got to the right form, but we get into all kinds of things like impact extrusion you get a shape where you have a metal and it's in the container the right shape, and you just hit it so hard that the thing just extrudes into the sides, into the right shape. There are all kinds of new techniques that came along in production engineering.

Now, in relation to what I've been telling you about before. The going from the very stupid kind of a viewpoint of tooling up years ahead the Detroit world to make money, into the airplane world where they were doing things right, because the thing was to make the plane fly, and have the man come home. The thing that came in there that made possible swift tooling, was the phenomena, tin. Did I go through tin history with you before? I don't think so.

I did mention to you that the oldest known history of any metal is the tin history kept by the Phoenicians, and how this became, the whole the great Roman Empire going to England and there was very much to that Roman world that I learn as I go to England more and more, I realize how really long the Roman World went on in England. It is a very extraordinary matter. And, it wasn't just an invasion at all, I mean it was really a way of life there for a long, great, great number of generations. At any rate, the tin got exhausted in England because everybody identified England with tin, the English, then, represented the best kind of an unsinkable flagship for the reconditioning of ships in the great runs, who came really then, one of the ships who went out of England began to discover that there was a lot of tin in the Malay straits. There still is it is one of the great tin sources today. Later on tin is discovered in Bolivia and much later in Tanganyika. Those are the main places of tin today around the world. There are not very many of them. There is none within the United States, neither in Alaska nor in the United States proper. There is some tin in Mexico and the Mexicans make quite a little with tin. Tin is equally expensive as silver, but you'll find quite a little tin work in Mexico.

Tin had a very extraordinary history. First, as men, then, discovered the water wheel, and they then learning that they could possibly get to use from the spinning wheels that the women had developed, and just the thread making and then getting into weaving and so forth. They got to where they could manufacture they could really set up machinery to do that and you could get the spindles going around and you could do all kinds of tricks with developing the cotton thread, and so forth. So, we have, using the water wheel, and you can make a water fall very readily as the miller learned to do, and then they found that with the great big driving wheel, fastened to the water wheel, then they could have a strap, a belt go up into the factory to another enormous wheel a good wide field pulley which the strap then, the friction of it, made it drive it alright. Then these were connected, they brought power into your building, and then they had shafts shaft hangars all running around those factories, and overhead shafts going everywhere with pulleys on them, and they're all going around. And all being driven from the water power. Then they placed the machines on the different floors of the factory, below the shafting and, from the pulley up above that machine they then have strapping coming down to a driving pulley on the machine. And they had ways then of getting a double pulley so you had a rod control. You could move the belt off or on to the drive pulley, so you could shut off your machine when you wanted to.

At any rate, the old factory buildings began to, you know, the foundations would change, they would sag, and for one reason or another the shafting would get out of alignment. The bearings for all the shafting in all those mills went through a box, and inside that box was what was called babbit metal, but it was tin, and tin has a very low melting point, so that when the bearing begins to give and really scrape and so forth, instead of tearing your drive shaft, it simply would melt, really sort of like running in butter, and it worked pretty well. So that tin made possible getting the wheels going of production of man. A very big part. This was going on in, my first job as I got out of Harvard, my first was a cotton mill where I was learning to be a millwright and a machine fitter, they call it, the English called it, and I learned then to get up each type of these machines, and I'm deeply familiar then with the functions of tin. Tin had a lot of other very nice functions of soldering, being able to make lamp shades out of wire, all kinds of things people could put together with the solder low melting point.

Then it got to be very important with electronics because you had to solder there to make a really good connection so it wouldn't oxidize. And we have then, tin, everybody was pretty familiar with what that tin was, and tin, it was found, could be flowed very thinly on the surface of thin sheet steel. So tin cans came in, and tin cans made possible preserving the foods, hermetically sealed. And this is, again, just a W.W.I kind of thing, and we had suddenly foods that used to rot were suddenly reaching people at any distance away very extraordinary new capability of man. This began to take people away from the farms, and tin had many, many very powerful functions in changing the pattern of man on our planet.